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Symptoms and deficits, mediated by learned breathing behaviors
that disturb basic acid-base chemistry, typically go “unexplained” or are
mistakenly attributed to other unrelated causes, e.g., stress. In this context of thinking, these effects
become behavioral consequences, rather than unexplained clinical symptoms
and performance deficits. Most forms
of breathing training, however, do not explicitly address the alignment of
external with internal respiration, but rather focus on the mechanics of
breathing, usually in the service of diminishing sympathetic arousal or
changing states of consciousness, e.g., relaxation, meditation, yoga. Unfortunately, however, it is usually
implicitly assumed that the specific breathing mechanics embedded in these
practices (e.g., breathing more deeply and more slowly) necessarily pave the
way to optimal respiration. This is a
big mistake. Respiratory fitness is vital to health and performance, and must
be regulated despite the breathing acrobatics of talking, emotional
encounters, and professional challenges.
As a result of very specific learning, dictated by specific learning
circumstances, breathing may “change on a dime” as a function of where (s)he
is, who (s)he is with, and what (s)he may be doing, thinking, and
feeling. Respiratory fitness needs to
be in place regardless of whether or not one is relaxed or stressed, excited
or bored, active or inactive, working or playing, focused or distracted. “Good respiration requires neither
relaxation nor a specific mechanical prescription, save one: the varied
melodies of breathing mechanics must ultimately play the music of balanced
chemistry” (Litchfield & Tsuda,
2006). To insist on slow breathing and
relaxation, for example, may be not only unrealistic, but may also be
counterproductive. CapnoLearning is about the application of traditional learning
theory to breathing behavior. Applied
behavioral analysis and behavior modification are thus central
considerations. Behavioral detective
work is essential, which means pinpointing the history of learned breathing
behavior along with the factors that may be sustaining it. If overbreathing is a reinforced operant
behavior, simply teaching clients the “right” mechanics may be both irrelevant
and misleading. Practicing
“good” mechanics may mean nothing more than repetitive exercises that attest
to one’s skills to consciously manipulate breathing behavior, which often may
in itself be a problem. If learning
history is overlooked, training will fail.
The governing factors will continue to govern. Basic learning considerations include classical conditioning,
operant conditioning, two-factor learning, avoidance learning,
state-dependent learning, cognitive learning, and biofeedback. Operant conditioning includes concepts such
as: operant response (e.g., breathing rapidly), positive reinforcement (e.g.,
feeling in control), negative reinforcement (e.g., fear reduction), and
discriminative stimulus (e.g., sense of breathlessness). Discriminative stimuli (SD)
trigger operant behaviors based on reinforcement contingencies, e.g.,
“feeling challenged by an authority figure” may serve as an SD for
accessory muscle (chest) breathing, an operant response positively reinforced
by “feeling in control.” Basic
classical conditioning concepts, as applied to breathing behavior, include
the (CS) conditioned stimulus (e.g., the experience of small breaths) and the
(CR) conditioned response (e.g., fear), i.e., small breaths elicit fear. Both kinds of learning may be
state-dependent which means that they may only be triggered in specific states,
e.g., when hypocapnic. In fact,
chronic hypocapnia may become the gateway into a different personality, a
different sense of self, thus making it a form of “chemical” dependency. Operant and classical conditioning invariably work together, and
comprise what is known as two-factor learning. Classically conditioned
responses provide both the motivation and reinforcement for the operant
behaviors. For example, classically
conditioned fear of the transition time between breaths (a conditioned
stimulus) provides motivation for aborting the exhale (an operant response),
which is then reinforced by fear reduction (a negative reinforcement). The transition time serves both as a
conditioned stimulus AND as a discriminative stimulus. These principles, as applied to breathing
behavior, are illustrated in the case described below. Litchfield, Peter M. and Tsuda, A. Good breathing, bad breathing. L’Esprit D’aujourdhui (2006); 8 (1), 47-57. (In Japanese, long version in English) Copyrighted by Behavioral Physiology
Institute, Santa Fe, New Mexico USA |